States Constrained by Debt and the Tokenisation of Assets
The modern state is, above all, a debtor. Global public debt reached a record high of 102,000 billion dollars in 2025, and the International Monetary Fund projects that the global debt-to-gross domestic product ratio will approach 100% by 2029—a threshold not reached since the immediate postwar period. Yet this aggregate figure masks a more far-reaching asymmetry: emerging and developing economies consistently borrow at interest rates two to four times higher than those charged to advanced economies, meaning that debt service can absorb the bulk of government revenue and eliminate the fiscal space needed for education, health care, infrastructure, and climate change adaptation.… Lire la suite